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soils, support biodiversity, store carbon and protect farms from climate extremes. However, trees also use water, and the consequences of tree planting for water availability depend strongly on tree
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are increasingly being incorporated into agricultural landscapes to provide shade, improve soils, support biodiversity, store carbon and protect farms from climate extremes. However, trees also use water, and the
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biodiversity loss. Yet agricultural landscapes are not necessarily biodiversity deserts. Trees retained or planted within farms (TIFs) may provide habitat, food resources and movement pathways for wildlife
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farms (TIFs) may provide habitat, food resources and movement pathways for wildlife. However, we know surprisingly little about which characteristics of tree-based agricultural systems make them effective